History of the Internet: Prior to the form of communication that led to the Internet, most computer networks were limited in nature and allowed communication only between stations on the local network. The method for creating communication between computers was based on a model of a central mainframe computer. A number of research projects have begun to examine and describe principles of communication between physically separated networks. The research efforts were conducted in parallel in a number of laboratories in the NPL (N) by Donald Davis, in the Rand Corporation by Paul Burn, at MIT by Leonard Kleinrock, and at UCLA. The studies have led to the development of a model of digital networks based on packet switching. In the late 1960s and 1970s, a number of packet-switched solutions were developed, including ARPANET and X.25 protocols.
This Computer was used by Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world’s first web server
At the same time, amateur computer networks began to gain popularity, including UUCP (copy of UNIX to UNIX) and FidoNet. These networks were still separate and disconnected networks that received services through limited gateways. Due to this limitation, a packet switching method has been implemented for the purpose of developing a protocol for network communication, in the framework of which several networks will be able to connect together into a unified super-network. By setting up a common and simple network system in the form of TCP / IP, the physical layer of the network could be separated from the layer of the protocol. The expanding spread of inter-network connectivity led to the development of a global network called the “Internet” and was based on standard protocols officially implemented in 1982. Connection to the global network was rapid in the Western world and later permeated the rest of the world. However, the growing gap between developed and third world countries has widened the digital divide.
Internet providers began to appear in the 1980s, and in the 1990s Internet use expanded among private consumers. The increasing use of the Internet has had a significant impact on culture and commerce. Among the implications of the Internet were instant communications provided by e-mail services, forums and the WWW. Investor speculation regarding Internet-related inventions later led to the inflating of the dot-com bubble, which eventually exploded. However, the Internet is constantly expanding.
The pre-internet era
In the 1950s and early 1960s, before the widespread connectivity that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited in that they allowed communication between stations associated with the network itself. Some of the networks had bridges between them but these were limited. A common form of networking for computers was based on a central computer method connected via leased lines. The method was used in the 1950s by the Rand Corporation to support researchers such as Herbert Simon at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who collaborated with researchers in Illinois on automated proof of law and artificial intelligence.
Telnet
The Telnet protocol was developed in 1969 for users who want to connect using the command line between computers connected to the same computer network, the innovation in the protocol was the ability to chat with other computers using direct text commands, without software mediation.
BBS
Bulletin Board System – BBS is software that allows users to connect to the computer on which the software is installed. This connection was made in the past with the help of an analog telephone line, the purpose of the connection was to carry out various social and entertainment activities, with the help of appropriate software. Users can download and upload various files, play games, read news, and exchange messages with other users.
Three terminals and the vision of the global network
One of the pioneers in calling a global network was J.C.R. Licklider who published his ideas in his 1960 article on the subject of machine-symbiosis
A network of such computers are interconnected in broadband communications and which will provide library functions along with functions related to expected advances in the field of information storage and retrieval.
– J.C.R. Licklider, a human symbiosis known as 1960
In October 1962, Liclider was appointed head of the United States Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Division. The division was then part of the Department of Defense’s data processing office but was later renamed DARPA. Liquidar has created a group that will expand research in computing. As part of the role of the data processing office, three network terminals were installed. One terminal for the systems development company in Santa Monica, another terminal for the Ginny project at the University of Berkeley and another terminal for the time-sharing system project at MIT.
For each of the three terminals I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking to someone at S.D.C and I wanted to talk to someone from an acquaintance at Berkeley or MIT I would have to leave the S.D.C terminal and connect to the other terminal to talk to them. […] I said, it’s clear what needs to be done (but I do not want to do it): if you have three terminals, there must be one terminal that goes wherever you want and where there are interactive computers. This idea is actually ARPAnet.
– Robert Taylor Liclider’s partner in writing the book “The Computer as a Communication Device” during an interview with the New York Times
Packet switching
The essence of the problem of interconnection is in connecting separate physical networks to one unified logical network. During the 1960s, Paul Bern of the Rand Corporation researched the creation of survivable networks for the United States military. In Bern’s network, the information transmitted is divided into packets of messages. Donald Davis from NPL proposed and created a similar network based on what he called packet branding. Leonard Kleinrock of MIT developed the mathematical theory behind the new technology. The packet switching method allows better utilization of bandwidth and improves response times compared to traditional circuit switching-based technology used in telephony. Especially when the inter-network connections have limited resources.
The packet switching method has a network design that allows for quick storage and sending. Messages are divided into arbitrary portions. Routing decisions are made on a package basis and not on a complete notice basis. Older networks used the method of switching messages which required rigid routing patterns which were sensitive to a single point of failure in the network.
Networks that led to the creation of the Internet
ARPANET
A section of a pipe from the original Internet network, in 1969. Exhibited in the Internet archive.
Having previously been the head of the DARPA Information Processing Office, Robert Taylor intended to realize Liclider’s vision of a networked network. Bringing in Lawrence Roberts from MIT he embarked on a project aimed at building such a network. The first ARPANET connection was established between the University of California, Los Angeles and Stanford University at 10:30 pm on October 29, 1969. By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Based on ideas from the ALOHA protocol ARPANET evolved rapidly. By 1981, the number of servers had grown to 213. A new server was added about every 20 days.
ARPANET has become the technical core of what will eventually become the Internet. ARPANET has also been a key tool in the development of Internet technologies. ARPANET’s development revolved around the concept of the Request for Comments which is still in use for the distribution of Internet protocols and systems. RFC 1, was written by Steve Crocker of the University of California, Los Angeles and published in April 1969.
International cooperation on ARPANET has been rare. Due to various political reasons, European developers have focused on developing X.25 networks.
X.25 and the concept of public access
Based on ARPA research, the ITU (International Telecommunication Union) has developed standards for packet-switched networks. The devices were X.25 and its derivatives. When performing packet switching, the X.25 standard for virtual circuits allows emulation of traditional telephone links. In 1974, X.25 was the basis for the SERCnet network between the British Academy and research sites. Standard X.25 was approved in March 1976.
UUCP
In 1979, the two students, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis of Duke University came up with the idea that simple scripts could be used to convey news and messages on a line.
Tori. Following the public distribution of the software, the network of UUCP servers that transmit messages over Usenet has expanded. The new network that later became UUCPnet also created gateways and links between it and FidoNet and BBS servers. UUCP networks are rapidly becoming popular due to their low cost and ability to use leased lines, X.25 links, and even ARPANET connections. In addition to these networks, no rigid regulations were attached compared to later networks such as CSNET and Bitnet. By 1981 the number of UUCP servers had grown to 550. That number nearly doubled to 940 in 1984. Sublink Network, which has been operating since 1987, based its connectivity on UCCP to distribute e-mail and messages in Italy.
England National Laboratory of Physics
In 1965, Robert Davis of the National Physics Laboratory of England proposed a nationwide data network based on packet switching. The proposal was not accepted at the national level but by 1970 Davis had managed to design and build a packet-based network to meet the multidisciplinary needs of the laboratory as well as to demonstrate the operational capability of the technology. [7] By 1976, 12 computers and 75 terminals were connected. Additional devices were gradually added until the network was replaced in 1986.
Union of Networks for Web Creation
TCP / IP
Map of the TCP / IP-based test network in January 1982
In view of the existence of such diverse methods of networking it was necessary to unify approaches. In order to solve the problem Robert E. recruited. Kahn risked DARPA the Winton Surf from Stanford University. Towards 1973, the two came to the conclusion that the gaps between network protocols could be bridged by hiding them through a common internetwork protocol ( History of the Internet ). Instead of the network being responsible for the reliability, as was the case with ARPANET, the servers accepted this responsibility. Surf notes the contribution of Hubert Zimmerman, Gerard Llan, and Louis Pousin (CYCLADES network designer) in working on the new standard.
The specification of the “RFC 675” protocol created by the working group of Winton Surf, Eugene Dellal, and Carl Sunshine in December 1974 contains the first use of the term “Internet” as an abbreviation for “Internetworking”. Later specifications repeated the use of the term. At first it was used as an adjective and not as a noun as is customary.
Once the role of the network was reduced to the required minimum, it was possible to bind together almost all types of networks regardless of their unique characteristics. This is how Kahn’s original problem was solved. DARPA agreed to fund the development of prototype software and after a number of years, a first demo was presented. The demonstration illustrated the mediation between the Packet Radio network in the San Francisco Bay Area and the ARPANET network. On November 22, 1977, [9] the demo was expanded to three networks ( History of the Internet ). The third network was the Atlantic packet satellite network. As a result of the first specifications of the TCP in 1974, the TCP / IP was born in the middle of 1978. Until 1981, the relevant standards were published and adopted in the form of RFC numbered 791, 792,793.
DARPA encouraged and funded the implementation of TCP / IP for a variety of operating systems and then coordinated the transfer process of all servers in all of its packet networks for use in TCP / IP. On January 1, 1983, TCP / IP protocols became the only protocols approved on the ARPANET network to replace the NCP protocol.
Moving from ARPANET to a number of broadly covered federal networks: MILNET, NSI, and NSFNet
After ARPANET was established and worked for several years, ARPA began looking for another agency that would take responsibility for the network. ARPA’s key role was to fund groundbreaking research and development rather than managing a communications site. Finally, in July 1975, the network passed into the hands of the American ICT Agency, which was part of the United States Department of Defense. In 1983, it was decided to separate the military part of the ARPANET network into an autonomous network called MILNET. MILNET later became an unclassified military network called NIPRNET ( History of the Internet ). In addition, there was a secretly classified network called SIPRNET and a network with a top-secret classification or higher called JWICS. NIPRNET has controlled gateways to the public Internet network.
The ARPANET-based networks were government-funded and therefore limited to non-commercial uses such as research. Commercial use was strictly prohibited. This meant that the networks were initially connected only to military sites and academic institutions ( History of the Internet ). During the 1980s more educational institutions and even commercial companies like HP were connected.
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Both NASA NSF and the United States Department of Energy became involved in Internet research and began developing a successor to ARPANET. In the mid-1980s, these wings developed the first TCP / IP-based networks with an extensive coverage ( History of the Internet ). The NASA space agency developed the NASA science network, the NSF developed the CSNET and the energy division promoted the ESNet network.
Internet use and cultural implications
Email and Usenet
E-mail existed even before the Internet and served as an important means in its creation. E-mail was created in 1965 as a means for many central computer users to communicate with each other. It is possible that the first systems that had e-mail were SDC’s Q32 and MIT’s CTSS.
The ARPANET network has contributed greatly to the development of e-mail. There is one report [12] that talks about experimental mail transfers between systems shortly after ARPANET was established. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson created what would later become the standard e-mail address format using the @ bound sign to separate usernames and server names.
A number of protocols have been developed to allow mail to be sent between groups of shared computers on various systems such as UUCP and IBM’s VNET system. This made it possible to transfer mail between several networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNet. In addition, mail could be transferred to servers connected directly to other sites using UUCP ( History of the Internet ).
UUCP enabled text files that could be read by many others. The news software developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Trescott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-style news. The software is tempting Ha quickly towards discussion groups on diverse topics ( History of the Internet ).
Search engines
Even before the WWW, there were search engines that tried to organize the Internet [History of the Internet]. The first was Archie (search engine) from McGill University in 1990, followed by WAIS and Gopher in 1991. All three of these systems preceded the invention of the WWW but all of them continued to index the network as well as the Internet for several years after the network appeared ( History of the Internet ).
As the web has expanded, search engines as well as web directories have been created to track web pages and allow people to find things. The first text-based search engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before that, only the titles of web pages could be searched. Another early search engine was Lycos which was created in 1993 as a university project and was even the first to achieve commercial success. In the late 90 search engines and web directories became popular among users especially those of Yahoo and Altavista ( History of the Internet ).
By August 2001, search engines had become more accepted than web directories mainly due to the rise of Google which has developed new approaches to retrieving information by relevance.
Social Networks
An online social network is a platform for a group of people who communicate with each other. Already in ARPANET, the first to connect with it saw it as a means of collaboration between researchers. As a result of the advent of the internet, social networks have a new and strengthening role, with special features. Web applications take advantage of the existence of social networks and amplify their impact. Contributing to social networks in processes that are important to the individual, such as finding a job, a partner, a business partner or finding rare and necessary expertise.
Historiography ( History of the Internet )
Many concerns have been raised regarding the historiography dealing with the development of the Internet. In particular, the concern was raised that it is difficult to find documentation regarding the development of the Internet due to a variety of reasons, including the lack of centralized documentation of most of the early developments that eventually led to the Internet.
“The ARPANET period is documented relatively well because the responsible company – BBN – left documentation. During the transition to the NSFNET period, the documentation process lost its centrality. The documentation exists in people’s warehouses and closets. […] Most of what is done is done orally and on a basis Trust. “